| War on Terrorism |
U.S. Soldiers boarding a CH-47 Chinook helicopter in Afghanistan during Operation Anaconda in the Shahi-Kot Valley and Arma Mountains southeast of Zormat. |
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| Belligerents |
Main participants:
International missions:
Other major supporters:
(note: most of contributing nations are included in the international operations)
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Terrorist groups:
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| Commanders |
 Gen. Tommy Franks (CENTCOM commander 2000 - 2003),
Gen. John Abizaid (CENTCOM commander 2003 - 2007),
Adm. William J. Fallon (CENTCOM commander 2007 - 2008),
Ltg. Martin Dempsey (acting CENTCOM commander, 2008),
Gen. David Petraeus (CENTCOM commander 2008 -).
 Adm. Sir Michael Boyce (Chief of the Defence Staff 2001 - 2003),
Gen. Sir Michael Walker (Chief of the Defence Staff 2003 - 2006),
ACM Sir Jock Stirrup (Chief of the Defence Staff 2006 - )
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 Osama bin Laden
 Mohammed Omar
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| Casualties and losses |
Military casualties
~28,600 dead
~52,000+ Injured
More... |
Military casualties
~54,114 to 59,490+ dead
More... |
Civilian casualties
Exact number unclear. |
The War on Terrorism, or War on Terror, is the common term for the military, political, legal and ideological conflict against Islamic terrorism, and specifically used in reference to operations by the United States, in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks.
The stated objectives of the war are to secure the American homeland, break up terror cells within the country, and disrupt the activities of the international network of terrorist organizations made up of a number of terrorist groups under the umbrella of al-Qaeda.[1][6]
Both the term and the policies it denotes have been a source of ongoing controversy, as critics argue it has been used to justify unilateral preventive war, human rights abuses and other violations of international law.[7][8][9]
War on Terrorism
- See also: Terrorism and List of terrorist incidents
Terrorist organizations -- chiefly al-Qaeda -- carried out attacks on the U.S. and its allies throughout the last few years of the twentieth century. The 1993 World Trade Center bombing by Al-Qaeda was the first of many terrorist attacks upon Americans during this period.
Subsequent attacks included the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing in Saudi Arabia, and the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Tanzania and Kenya. Also in 1998 came the World Islamic Front declaration of 23 February 1998, entitled "Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders", which described the actions of Americans as conflicting with "Allah's order", and stated the Front's "ruling to kill the Americans and their allies-civilians and military-is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it."[citation needed]
Led by Osama Bin Laden, a radical muslim terrorist, Al-Qaeda formed a large base of operations in Afghanistan, which had been ruled by the Islamic extremist regime of the Taliban since 1996.
Following the 1998 embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania,[10] President Bill Clinton launched Operation Infinite Reach, a bombing campaign in Sudan and Afghanistan against targets associated with al-Qaeda.[11][12] The strikes failed to kill al-Qaeda'a leaders or their Taliban supporters (targets included a civilian pharmaceutical plant in Sudan that produced 90% of the region's malaria drugs).
Next came the 2000 millennium attack plots which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport. In October 2000 the USS Cole bombing occurred,[13] followed in 2001 by the September 11 attacks.[14]
The attacks of 9/11(on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon and United 93 Crash) created an immediate demand throughout the United States for a decisive response, leading to an invasion of Afghanistan dubbed Operation Enduring Freedom which removed the Taliban from power and ended al-Qaeda's use of the country as a terrorist base.
In 2001 the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution 1373 which obliges all States to criminalize assistance for terrorist activities, deny financial support and safe haven to terrorists and share information about groups planning terrorist attacks. In 2005 the Security Council also adopted resolution 1624 concerning incitement to commit acts of terrorism and the obligations of countries to comply with international human rights laws.[15] Although both resolutions require mandatory annual reports on counter terrorism activities by adopting nations the United States and Israel have both declined to submit reports.
Historical usage of phrase
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The phrase "War on Terrorism" was first widely used by the Western press to refer to the attempts by Russian and European governments, and eventually the U.S. government, to stop attacks by anarchists against international political leaders. (See, for example, New York Times, April 2, 1881.) Many of the anarchists described themselves as "terrorists," and the term had a positive valence for them at the time.
When Russian Marxist Vera Zasulich shot and wounded a Russian police commander who was known to torture suspects on 24 January 1878, for example, she threw down her weapon without killing him, announcing, "I am a terrorist, not a killer."[16]
The phrase gained currency was when it was used to describe the efforts by the British colonial government to end a spate of Jewish attacks in the British Mandate of Palestine in the late 1940s. The British proclaimed a "War on Terrorism" and attempted to crack down on Irgun, Lehi, and anyone perceived to be cooperating with them.
The Jewish attacks, Arab attacks and revolts, and the subsequent British crackdown hastened the British evacuation from Palestine. The phrase was also used frequently by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s.[17]
On September 20, 2001, during an address to a joint session of congress and the American people, President George W. Bush formally declared war on terror when he said, "Our war on terror begins with al Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated."
United States President-elect Barack Obama has however signaled an end to the "war on terror", by stating that "Afghanistan is where the war on terror began, and that is where it must end",[18] in stark contrast to Bush's open-ended and ambiguous language.
Operative definition in U.S. foreign policy
The United States has defined terrorism under the Federal Criminal Code. Chapter 113B of Part I of Title 18 of the Code defines terrorism and lists the crimes associated with it.[19] In Section 2331 of Chapter 113b, terrorism is defined as:
- "...activities that involve violent... <or life-threatening acts>... that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State and... appear to be intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and ...<if domestic>...(C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States...<if international>...(C) occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States..."
With respect to defining his policy known as the War on Terror, President Bush has stated that:
- "...today's war on terror is like the Cold War. It is an ideological struggle with an enemy that despises freedom and pursues totalitarian aims....I vowed then that I would use all assets of our power of Shock and Awe to win the war on terror. And so I said we were going to stay on the offense two ways: one, hunt down the enemy and bring them to justice, and take threats seriously; and two, spread freedom."[20]
British objections to the phrase "war on terrorism"
The Director of Public Prosecutions and head of the Crown Prosecution Service in the UK, Ken McDonald - Britain's most senior criminal prosecutor - has stated that those responsible for acts of terror such as the 7 July 2005 London bombings are not "soldiers" in a war, but "inadequates" who should be dealt with by the criminal justice system.
He added that a "culture of legislative restraint" was needed in passing anti-terrorism laws, and that a "primary purpose" of the violent attacks was to tempt countries such as Britain to "abandon our values." He stated that in the eyes of the UK criminal justice system, the response to terrorism had to be "proportionate, and grounded in due process and the rule of law":
- "London is not a battlefield. Those innocents who were murdered...were not victims of war. And the men who killed them were not, as in their vanity they claimed on their ludicrous videos, 'soldiers'. They were deluded, narcissistic inadequates. They were criminals. They were fantasists. We need to be very clear about this. On the streets of London there is no such thing as a war on terror. The fight against terrorism on the streets of Britain is not a war. It is the prevention of crime, the enforcement of our laws, and the winning of justice for those damaged by their infringement."[21]
At the time that the "War on Terror" became a national catchphrase in the U.S., many British people cynically compared America's new found spur against terrorism with America's previous actions regarding tacit support for terrorism in Ireland [22]. The political wing of the Irish Republican Army, a recognized terrorist organization, openly raised money in the United States for their cause[23].
Ostensibly the money was raised for the families of those imprisoned on terrorist offences, but U.S. politicians were long made aware that this was the major source of funding for the IRA's terrorist activities.
Stated U.S. objectives
The Bush Administration has defined the following objectives in the War on Terrorism:[24]
- Defeat terrorists and destroy their organizations.
- Identify, locate and destroy terrorists along with their organizations.
- Deny sponsorship, support and sanctuary to terrorists.
- End the state sponsorship of terrorism.
- Establish and maintain an international standard of accountability with regard to combating terrorism.
- Strengthen and sustain the international effort to fight terrorism.
- Working with willing and able states.
- Enabling weak states.
- Persuading reluctant states.
- Compelling unwilling states.
- Interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists.
- Eliminate terrorist sanctuaries and havens.
- Diminishing the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit.
- Partner with the international community to strengthen weak states and prevent (re)emergence of terrorism.
- Win the war of ideals.
- Defend U.S. citizens and interests at home and abroad.
- Implement the Nation Strategy for Homeland Security.
- Attain domain awareness.
- Enhance measures to ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of critical physical and information-based infrastructures at home and abroad.
- Integrate measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad.
- Ensure an integrated incident management capability.
Timeline
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Campaigns and theaters of operation
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Africa
Horn of Africa
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U.S. Army Soldiers and French Commandos.
This extension of Operation Enduring Freedom, titled OEF-HOA, was initiated in response to the September 11 attacks on the United States. Unlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist organization as a target.
OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the region and to work with host nations to prevent the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities.
In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was established in Djibouti at Camp Le Monier. It contains approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF) and coalition force members, Coalition Task Force 150 (CTF-150).
The coalition force members consist of ships from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Pakistan, New Zealand, Spain and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region and areas of Operation Iraqi Freedom.[25]
Included in the operation is the training of selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include rebuilding of schools and medical clinics as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained.
The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali.[25] However, the War on Terror does not include Sudan, where over 400,000 have died due to state-sponsored terrorism.[26]
On July 1, 2006, a Web-posted message purportedly written by Osama bin Laden urged Somalis to build an Islamic state in the country and warned western states that his al-Qaeda network would fight against them if they intervened there.[27]
Somalia has been considered a "failed state" because its official central government was weak, dominated by warlords and unable to exert effective control over the country. Beginning in mid-2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist faction campaigning on a restoration of "law and order" through Sharia Law, had rapidly taken control of much of southern Somalia.
On December 14, 2006, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Jendayi Frazer claimed al-Qaeda cell operatives were controlling the Islamic Courts Union, a claim denied by the ICU.[28]
By late 2006, the UN-backed Transitional Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia had seen its power effectively limited to Baidoa, while the Islamic Courts Union controlled the majority of Southern Somalia, including the capital of Mogadishu. On December 20, the Islamic Courts Union launched an offensive on the government stronghold of Baidoa, and saw early gains before Ethiopia intervened in favor of the government.
By December 26, the Islamic Courts Union went into a "tactical retreat" towards Mogadishu, before again retreating as TFG/Ethiopian troops neared, leading them to take Mogadishu with no resistance. The ICU then fled to Kismayo, where they are currently fighting Ethiopian/TFG forces in the Battle of Jilib.
The Prime Minister of Somalia claims that 3 terror suspects from the 1998 Embassy Bombings are being sheltered in Kismayo. [13] On 30 December 2006, al-Qaeda deputy leader Ayman al-Zawahiri called upon Muslims worldwide to fight against Ethiopia and the TFG in Somalia.[29]
On January 8, 2007, the U.S. launched a strike in Somalia against the suspects using AC-130 gunships.[14]
Europe
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Beginning in October 2001, Operation Active Endeavour is a naval operation of NATO started in response to the 9/11 attacks. It operates in the Mediterranean Sea and is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general. The operation has also assisted Greece with the prevention of illegal immigration.
Middle East
Iraq
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Iraq had been listed as a State Sponsor of Terror by the United States since 1990,[30] and maintained poor relations with the United States since the Gulf War. The regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq proved a continuing problem for the UN and Iraq-s neighbors in its refusal to account for previously known stockpiles of chemical and biological weapons, its violations of UN resolutions, and its support for terrorism against Israel and other countries.
After the 1991 Gulf War, the US, French and British militaries began patrolling the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Iraq-s Kurdish minority and Shi-ite Arab population - both of which suffered attacks from the Hussein regime before and after the 1991 Gulf War - in Iraq-s northern and southern regions, respectively.
Tensions were high throughout the 1990s, with the United States launching Operation Desert Fox against Iraq in 1998 after it failed to meet demands of "unconditional cooperation" in weapons inspections.[31] In the aftermath of Operation Desert Fox during December 1998, Iraq announced that it would no longer respect the no-fly zones and resumed its efforts in shooting down Allied aircraft.
Air strikes by the British and Americans against Iraqi anti-aircraft and military targets continued over the next few years. Also in 1998, President Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act which called for regime change in Iraq on the basis of Saddam Hussein-s possession of weapons of mass destruction, oppression of Iraqi citizens and attacks upon other Middle Eastern countries.
After the September 11 attacks, the U.S. government claimed that Iraq was a threat to the United States because Iraq could begin to use its previously known Weapons of Mass Destruction to aid terrorist groups.
The George W. Bush administration called for the United Nations Security Council to send weapons inspectors to Iraq to find and destroy alleged weapons of mass destruction and for a UNSC resolution.[32][33] UNSC Resolution 1441 was passed unanimously, which offered Iraq "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" or face "serious consequences."
Resolution 1441 did not authorize the use of force by member states, thus Resolution 1441 had no effect on the UN Charter's prohibition on the use of force by member states against fellow member states. Saddam Hussein subsequently allowed UN inspectors to access Iraqi sites, while the U.S. government continued to assert that Iraq was being obstructionist. [15]
In October 2002, a large bipartisan majority in the United States Congress authorized the president to use force if necessary to disarm Iraq in order to "prosecute the war on terrorism."[34] After failing to overcome opposition from France, Russia, and China against a UNSC resolution that would sanction the use of force against Iraq, and before the UN weapons inspectors had completed their inspections which were deemed to be fruitless by the U.S. because of Iraq's alleged deception, the United States assembled a "Coalition of the Willing" composed of nations who pledged support for regime change in Iraq.
On March 20, 2003, the invasion of Iraq was launched in what the Bush Administration said were the "serious consequences" spoken of in UNSC Resolution 1441.
Saddam Hussein's regime was quickly toppled and on May 1, 2003, George W. Bush stated that major combat operations in Iraq had ended.[35] However, an insurgency arose against the U.S.-led coalition and the newly developing Iraqi military and post-Saddam government.
Elements of the insurgency were led by fugitive members of Saddam's Ba'ath regime, who included Iraqi nationalists and pan-Arabists. Most insurgency leaders are violent Islamists and claim to be fighting a religious war to reestablish the Arab Islamic Caliphate of centuries past.[36]
After months of brutal violence against Iraqi civilians by Sunni and Shi-ite terrorist groups and militias -- including Al-Qaeda in Iraq -- in January 2007 President Bush presented a new strategy for Operation Iraqi Freedom based upon Counter-insurgency theories and tactics developed by General David Petraeus. The Iraq War troop surge of 2007 was part of this "new way forward" and has been credited with a widely recognized dramatic decrease in violence by up to 80%, and a more controversial possible increase in political and communal reconciliation in Iraq.
Lebanon
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In July 2006, following the killing of three Israeli soldiers and the taking prisoner of two more by Hezbollah, Israel invaded southern Lebanon, intent on the destruction of Hezbollah. The conflict lasted over a month and caused the deaths of between 845[37] and 1300[38] Lebanese and 163 Israelis (119 military and 44 civilian) and wounding thousands more Israelis and Lebanese.[39] Both the Lebanese government (including Hezbollah) and the Israeli government have agreed to the terms of the ceasefire agreement created by the United Nations that began at 0500 on August 14, 2006. While the conflict is associated with the longer running Arab-Israeli conflict, prior to the declaration of the ceasefire, Israel stated it was fighting a war against terror,[40] the U.S. government stated the conflict was also a front in the "War on Terror"[41] and President Bush reiterated it in a speech the day the ceasefire came into effect.[42]
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In 2007 a conflict began in northern Lebanon after fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, an Islamist militant organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces on May 20, 2007 in Nahr al-Bared, a Palestinian refugee camp near Tripoli. The conflict evolved mostly around the Siege of Nahr el-Bared, but minor clashes had also occurred in the Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp in southern Lebanon and several terrorist bombings took place in and around Lebanon's capital Beirut. The terrorist group has been described as a militant jihadist[43] movement that draws inspiration from al-Qaeda.[43] The U.S. provided military aid to Lebanon during the conflict. On September 7, 2007 Lebanese Forces captured the camp and then declared victory.
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In May 2008, Lebanon's 17-month long political crisis spiralled out of control. The unrest saw fighters from Shi'a movements Hezbollah and Amal opposing pro-government gunmen, including fighters loyal to the Sunni Future Movement Party, in several areas of the capital. The government was U.S.-backed while the Shiite militants were armed and financed by Syria and Iran. The fighting led to the fall of Beirut and the eastern Aley area to opposition forces.
Saudi Arabia
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One of the Riyadh compounds bombing.
The latest wave of attacks in Saudi Arabia started with the bombing in Riyadh on 12 May 2003 by al-Qaeda terrorists. The attacks are targeting the Saudi security forces, the foreign workers, and tourists (mostly Western).
Gaza Strip/West Bank
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The Fatah-Hamas conflict began in 2006 and has continued, in one form or another, into the middle of 2007. The conflict is between the two main Palestinian factions, Fatah and Hamas, with each vying to assume political control of the Palestinian Territories.
The majority of the fighting is occurring in the Gaza Strip, which was taken over by Hamas in June 2007. Fatah is United States backed whereas Hamas, despite being considered a terrorist organization by the United States, United Nations and the European Union, won the first free and democratic elections held in the Palestinian territories.
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Following Hamas's violent takeover of the Gaza Strip during the Battle of Gaza Israel imposed a blockade of the territory. What ensued was a series of rocket attacks by Hamas against southern Israel and small military operations against the rocket teams by the IDF. This culminated by the end of December 2008, after a six-month truce ended between Israel and Hamas. Rocket attacks intensified and Israel responded with heavy air strikes on December 27, 2008. At least 225 people were killed on the first day of the Israeli attack, 140 of the Hamas militants according to the IDF. Following a week of air raids Israeli troops started ground operations and attacked the Gaza Strip on January 4, 2009. The attack cut Gaza into three parts and by January 9, 783 Palestinians (around 350 civilians) and 13 Israelis (10 soldiers) were killed. By some the conflict had been considered, just like the 2006 Lebanon war, as a proxy war between Israel's Western allies and Iran for the Middle East.[44]
Central Asia/South Asia
India
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India has had to deal with a slow but steady rise in Islamist terrorism over the course of the 1980s and the 21st century. The recent rise in prominence of several Pakistan and Kashmir-based terror groups, such as Lashkar-e-Toiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed, Hizbul Mujahideen and others in Kashmir has created grave problems for the country.
Major terrorist incidents in India carried out by Islamic groups include the 1993 Mumbai bombings, as well as terrorism in Kashmir such as Wandhama massacre, Kaluchak massacre, Chittisinghpura massacre and others.
Other deadly terrorist attacks in the rest of the country include:
In the aftermath of the 2001 Indian Parliament attack, tensions between India and Pakistan increased as India blamed Pakistan for not doing enough to contain anti-India terrorist groups based there. This resulted in massive troop build-ups along the Indo-Pakistani international border by both India and Pakistan resulting in fears of a nuclear war.
However, international diplomacy helped reduce tensions between the two nuclear weapons-armed states. Pakistan was also suspected to be behind the 2008 Indian embassy bombing in Kabul.[45][46]
Kashmiri insurgents, who initially started their movement as a pro-Kashmiri independence movement, have gone through a radical change in their ideology. They now portray their struggle as a religious one.[47]
Research and Analysis Wing, India's premier external intelligence agency, observed the growing link between Islamic terrorist groups based in Afghanistan and Kashmiri insurgents.[48] Al-Qaeda also lends ideological and financial support to terrorism in Kashmir, with Osama bin Laden constantly demanding that jihad be waged against India[49] and Islamic fundamentalist groups disseminating propaganda in many countries against India with rhetoric like "idol worshipers and Hindus" who "occupy Kashmir".[50]
The government and military of India have taken numerous counter-terrorist measures to combat rising terrorism in the country.[51] Some of these measures have been criticized by human rights groups as being too draconian, particularly in Kashmir.[52]
However, increased vigilance by Indian security forces has had a positive impact with the number of terrorist attacks declining sharply in 2007.[53] India is considered to be one of main allies in the war on terrorism[54] and has worked closely on counter-terrorism activities and training with several countries such as United States,[55] Japan,[56] China,[57] Australia,[58] Israel,[59] United Kingdom,[60] and Russia.[61]
India has been criticized over its anti-terrorist operations in Jammu and Kashmir, the heavy-handed response to unrest in which 40 people - the vast majority unarmed civilian protesters - were killed by Indian armed forces could lead to the "Talibanisation of the Kashmiri separatist struggle."[62]
Afghanistan
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Soldiers in south-eastern Afghanistan check their coordinates during a combat patrol.
U.S. Army Chinook helicopter in the Afghanistan mountains.
In October 2001, in the wake of the September 11 attacks on the United States, US and UK forces (with some coalition allies) invaded Afghanistan to remove al-Qaeda forces and oust the Taliban regime which had control of the country.
On September 20, 2001 George W. Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban regime to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda leaders operating in the country.[63] The Taliban demanded evidence of bin Laden's link to the September 11 attacks and, if such evidence warranted a trial, they offered to handle such a trial in an Islamic Court.[64]
On October 7, 2001 the official invasion began with British and American forces conducting aerial bombing campaigns.[65]
Waging war in Afghanistan has been of a lower priority for the U.S. government than the war in Iraq. Admiral Mike Mullen, Staff Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said that while the situation in Afghanistan is "precarious and urgent," the 10,000 additional troops needed there would be unavailable "in any significant manner" unless withdrawals from Iraq are made.
However, Admiral Mullen stated that "my priorities . . . given to me by the commander in chief are: Focus on Iraq first. It's been that way for some time. Focus on Afghanistan second."[66]
Pakistan
The Saudi born Zayn al-Abidn Muhammed Hasayn Abu Zubaydah was arrested by Pakistani officials during a series of joint U.S. and Pakistan raids during the week of March 23, 2002. During the raid the suspect was shot three times while trying to escape capture by military personnel.
Zubaydah is said to be a high-ranking al-Qaeda official with the title of operations chief and in charge of running al-Qaeda training camps. [16] Later that year on September 14, 2002, Ramzi Binalshibh was arrested in Pakistan after a three-hour gunfight with police forces.
Binalshibh is known to have shared a room with Mohammad Atta in Hamburg, Germany and to be a financial backer of al-Qaeda operations. It is said Binalshibh was supposed to be another hijacker, however the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services rejected his visa application three times, leaving him to the role of financier. The trail of money transferred by Binalshibh from Germany to the United States links both Mohammad Atta and | 
